Global Change threatens the liberal order Assignment

Global Change threatens the liberal order - Assignment Example The world economy has been working in quite a complex way in the past decade. The critical role has been played by the global financial crisis and breakdown of the American rule and power (Groody, 2002). The paper is an analysis of present situation of the international liberal order and trends that have threatened its presence in the current context. The paper also analyses an antithesis that supports the previous order and concludes on a choice between the two opinions. Liberal order in the context of liberal internationalism assumes that governments and people have a shared common interest towards establishment of the global cooperative world, despite the existence of restrains, sovereign equality and reciprocation. The optimist view for international liberal order goes forth to discuss that all states have the ability to overcome constraints with a view to cooperate, thereby resolving security issues, working towards collective action and consequently, developing a stable and open system (Steins, 2004). United States of America was deemed to be the champion of international liberal order until the twentieth century. The sponsor, function and role of United States have undergone a major change over the recent years. Facts such as, those pertaining to geo-political position of the United States, have been responsible for shaping up America’s liberal order, but more important aspects are the logic and character of this very liberal order placed within the global context. The political system of the western world, including currency, technology, alliances and markets, has been fused with the liberal order for providing a base for liberal internationalisation. During the Cold War, the United States developed towards becoming operator of the global capitalist form of liberal political order (Ikenberry, 2011). With closure of the Cold War, peaceful terms that emerged were more in

Philosophical thinking Essay Example for Free

Philosophical thinking Essay There are many forms of philosophical thinking that humans tend to immerse themselves into. Sometimes, even the realm of self idolatry can be a subject of one’s happiness in pursuit of his own idea of what is satisfactory. In a more conventional identification of this act, vanity can become an obsession and may induce certain effects to one’s character. According to Wikipedia, vanity is a form of self gratification with regards to one’s belief about his or her attractiveness and abilities. Most of the time, people with this philosophy tend to excessively compliment themselves without entertaining any forms of negative perception from the people around them. In religious perspectives, vanity is a form of idolatry to oneself in which a person may become too overwhelmed with his characteristics that he tends to ignore any other beings superior than what he is supposed to be, bypassing the concept of god. In modern times, vanity can be easily spotted and may be identified to almost all societies in the world. One may identify a vain person by simply observing the way he acts with regards to how he projects himself to the public. For example, a person may always need to do make up retouching, consistently apply perfumes and even always engage in small acts of looking for runs and protruding fibers out of his clothes. In some cases, vanity can also be identified not only in physical perspectives but also in one’s philosophy. Vain people tend to always tell self proclaimed abilities about how they can handle situations which seem to be a problem for others. With such acts, some people may even interpret them as a form of arrogance. It would be a fulfilling experience if someone will tell you compliments about how you look and praise what you can do, but the aim to always look forward for this reactions from people can become an obsession and may lead to vanity. Works Cited Wikipedia. November 7 2007. Vanity. Wikipedia-The Free Encyclopedia. November 19, 2007 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Vanity.

Slave to Man Essays -- Literary Analysis, Shakespeare

Sonnet 143 by William Shakespeare creates a patriarchal ideology constructing gender and women’s role in society supported by feminist criticism, which implements patriarchal woman, traditional gender roles, biological essentialism, othering, and sexage. By forcing women to be seen as biological creatures and/or insignificant objects with specific characteristics, a social construction is made. Instantly the typical patriarchal woman in traditional gender roles of â€Å"housewife† and â€Å"mother† is cast upon the main character in Sonnet 143. She has â€Å"internalized the norms and values of patriarchy, which can be defined, in short, as any culture that privileges men† (Tyson 85). The dark lady/mother is given the task to stay home and care for her child. She is shown as a nice wife who â€Å"runs to catch / One of her feathered creatures broke away,† taking care to watch the family bird or chicken while she â€Å"Sets down her babe, and makes all swift dispatch† (Shakespeare 143.1-3). She is given the task to chase after a bird, which seems to be in their house, showcasing she must be poor and in a lower class, making the impression that while the man is away, she is less privileged and must stay home with the child in untidy conditions. Furthering this scene is the fact that she is described as the sole caregiver to the child. â€Å"Traditional gender roles cast men as rational, strong, protective, and decisive; they cast women as emotional (irrational), weak, nurturing and submissive† which are seen in the relationships and characters of Sonnet 143 (Tyson 85). The speaker or child tries to gain attention from his mother or the dark lady. He wishes she would â€Å"play the mother’s part, kiss me, be kind† (Shakespeare 143.12). The child is acting as a d... ...ats women, whatever their role, like objects† (Tyson 91). She is nothing of value, besides pleasuring the young man; she is not even fit to be a successful mother. So the mother, who is seen as biologically the better nurturer, is therefore a bad caregiver since she has other duties that come before that of her child. Overall, the woman is showcased as obviously living a less-fulfilling life as the man, she is forced to take care of the child, abide to the speaker’s cries, and chase after the â€Å"feathered creature,† all in poor conditions, whiles the man has patriarchal control (Shakespeare 143.2). When seen as the dark lady she is nothing be a sex object, fulfilling his desires and pleasures. The speaker already has the education to write the poetry. Using his schooling, he illustrates that even though the woman holds his desire, he has power over her actions.

Czech Republic :: Czech Europe Essays

Czech Republic We just arrived in the Czech Republic; once part of the Holy Roman Empire and then the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Czechoslovakia (as it was then known) became an independent nation at the end of World War I. The Czech republic is located North of Hungary, South of Poland, East of Germany, and West of the Ukraine and Russia. The capital of the Czech republic is Prague. The Czech Republicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s exact position is - longitude, - latitude. Pragueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s coordinates are longitude by latitude. We arrived in the Czech Republic on and left for on . While in the Czech Republic we visited many unique sights. One of the most impressive was Prague Castle. It is the most popular and most visited sight in the Czech Republic, so it was a must see attraction for us. We also went to The Castle St. Vitus, the Cathedral, (which is a gothic landmark), three courtyards, and many huge & beautiful gardens. We visited another church, St. Nicholas, it had a large green cupola. We wanted to get a feel for the people of the country, so we went to Old Town. Old Town is the working heart of Prague, as it has been since the 10th Century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many of the buildings we went in had gothic insides and Roman basements. One day we had a picnic on a three hundred and eighteen-meter high hill called Petrin Hill. On top there is actually a network of eight parks. While we were there we stopped at the observatory Petrin Tower. Petrin Tower looks like a small Eiffel Tower and was built in 1891. We climbed the 299 steps for only 25 kc, (which is Czech money). Next we went to Wencelas Square. This square is the center of cultural, financial and everyday life. There are a lot of theaters, shops, store and banks around to use. After our adventure in the square we went to see Josefov, the Old Jewish Quarters. Praguesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ former Jewish ghetto was located in Old Town within the streets of Kaprova, Plouha and Ankozi. During World War II the Nazisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ under the control of Hitler wiped out this community.

Anger

Intense emotion like anger involves a great deal of bodily changes that occur as a result of activation of the sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. At one time or another every one feels angry. J. B. Wats mentioned that when goal-directed behaviour of a child is obstructed and interfered with, anger is manifested. Thus, anger is the outcome of restriction imposed against desires.In other words, frustrating situation on the way for a goal results in anger. The need for catharsis and role of learning also play significant role in anger. Catharsis refers to the release of anxiety and tension, pent-up feelings and dissatisfaction and emotions resulting from daily life struggle verbally and through actions. These are directed towards any one anything that causes anger in the adult person.Children learn to show attack and aggressive behaviours by observing cartoons, movies, and T. V. serial and aggressive models, Observation of live scenes of anger and aggressive behaviou r produces more imitation of specific anger action, in one of the experiments by Bandura (1973), nursery school children observed a movie when adults were showing varieties of aggressive behaviour toward an inflated doll.After observing the film both boys and girls demonstrated the same of aggressive behaviour toward the inflated doll. These aggressive responses include punching, throwing, striking with a hammer, kicking and pounding number of blows to the doll. Freud inferred from his observational studies of numerous patients and children that aggression is an inborn instinct. Lorenz too believed that anger aggressions are innate instincts with animals and human beings.This basic anger behaviour should have some outlets, such as competitive sports, hard labor such as gardening, walking, recognizing the stimulus that provokes anger aggression, a persuasive leader, and not rewarding any aggressive behaviour etc. Studies indicated in the past that rage- an extreme form of anger, rela tively uncontrollable – can be at times real and at times partial which are termed as â€Å"sham rage†. Sham rage was demonstrated in cats, dogs, primates and other animals by stimulating particular areas of brain, especially the hypothalamus.

Fires of Jubilee essays

Fires of Jubilee essays The author, Stephen B. Oates described this book as a book thats adventurous and never ending. The authors purpose of this book was to bring back the past and tell us what we didnt know about the slave rebellion. Tell us what was actually happening behind the great battles that were lead by the Americans and the British, also the French. He wrote this book in many different ways, and ideas. Sometimes the story will jump into another subject that is relating to the other subjects. He described the book as he was a slave himself. How the slaves brought America into a new era. How that blacks were not as week as the whites think they were. Also that not all blacks are stupid, especial Nat Turner who turned out, was the smartest black person in Virginia. The author just wanted us to know, that slaves are supposed to be treated the same way as other people and also the whites. The story was first based on the year 1780s and it ends at the year 1831. The story is based in the southern part of Virginia along the North Carolina border; lay a little-known back-water called Southampton County. The story is mostly places in gigantic fields and land of plantation owned by the rich whites. Also near many woods and mysterious swamps behind most of the plantation fields. It is in between 2 rivers. 1 big river called the Nottoway River and the small river called Tarrara Creek. And this story is also located between two cities known as Jerusalem and also Cross Keys. As the story keeps on moving on, its starts to tell us more about the City. Basically what happens in the city and what activities people (whites) do in their time of slavery. The Nat Turner Rebellion was an important event in the history of the United States. As a result of the rebellion that Nat started, the history of America is a drastically different place than it would have been. In the book The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turners Fierce Reb ...

Understanding How the Earths First Forests Developed

Understanding How the Earth's First Forests Developed The vascular plant emerged around 400 million years ago and started Earths forest-building process during the Silurian geologic period. Although not yet a true tree, this new member of the terrestrial plant kingdom became the perfect evolutionary link (and the largest plant species) with developing tree parts and considered the first proto-tree. Vascular plants developed the ability to grow large and tall with massive weight needed for the support of a vascular internal plumbing system. The First Trees The earths first real tree continued to develop during the Devonian period and scientists think that tree was probably the extinct ​Archaeopteris. This tree species followed later by other tree types became the definitive species comprising a forest during the late Devonian period. As I have mentioned, they were the first plants to overcome the biomechanical problems of supporting additional weight while delivering water and nutrients to fronds (leaves) and roots. Entering the Carboniferous period around 360 million years ago, trees were prolific and a major part of the plant life community, mostly located in coal-producing swamps. Trees were developing the parts that we immediately recognize today. Of all the trees that existed during the Devonian and Carboniferous, only the tree fern can still be found, now living in Australasian tropical rainforests. If you happen to see a fern with a trunk leading to a crown, you have seen a tree fern. During that same geologic period, now extinct trees including clubmoss and giant horsetail were also growing. Evolution of the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms Primitive conifers were the next three species to appear in ancient forests around 250 million years ago (the late Permian to Triassic). Many trees, including the cycads and monkey-puzzle tree, can be found around the world and are easily recognized. Interestingly, the very familiar ginkgo trees ancestor appeared during this geologic period and the fossil record shows the old and the new to be identical. Arizonas petrified forest was a product of the rise of the first conifers or gymnosperms, and exposed fossilized logs are crystallized remains of the tree species Araucarioxylon arizonicum. There was another type of tree, called an angiosperm or hardwood, making headway during the early Cretaceous or about 150 million years ago. They appeared at about the same time geologists think the earth was breaking up from a single continent called the Pangaea and dividing into smaller ones (Laurasia and Gondwanaland). Early into that Tertiary period, hardwoods exploded and diversified themselves on each new continent. That is probably the reason hardwoods are so unique and numerous across the globe. Our Present Evolutionary Forest Few dinosaurs ever made a meal on hardwood leaves because they were rapidly disappearing before and during the beginning of the new age of hardwoods (95 million years ago). Magnolias, laurels, maples, sycamores, and oaks were the first species to proliferate and dominate the world. Hardwoods became the predominant tree species from mid-latitudes through the tropics while conifers were often isolated to the high-latitudes or the lower latitudes bordering the tropics. Not a lot of change has happened to trees in terms of their evolutionary record since the palms made their first appearance 70 million years ago. Fascinating are several tree species that simply defy the extinction process and show no indication that they will change in another dozen million years. I mentioned ginkgo earlier but there are others: dawn redwood, Wollemi pine, and monkey puzzle tree.

The Word of God Scripture

The Word of God Scripture Introduction Insatiable nature of human needs and wants has been a subject, which has been explored in various academic, social, and economic fields. In religious circles, the bible forms the backbone of the Christian faith, and it houses sixty-six books written in different genres and by different authors.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Word of God Scripture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Christians, God inspired all the forty authors of the bible, which renders the bible inerrancy and infallible. Significantly, the many genres of the bible enable Christians to understand the word of God easily. However, since the bible is the central book in Christianity, its inerrancy and inspiration has triggered endless and unquenchable desire for better and newer things among humanity. Christian’s perception/definition on bible inerrancy Intellectual realm is where the insatiability of human nature li es, and thus there is need to go beyond what is attainable by mere human ability. In the process of searching for the meaning of existence, human beings have proliferated thousands of different religions in different societies throughout the world, and countless religious writings and sacred texts attempting to satisfy their intellectual conundrum (Imperato 85). Christians are propagating the bible teachings because they view them as inerrant. Inerrancy is in different categories, strict/absolute, limited, or no inerrancy at all. According to Catholics, strict inerrancy means that the bible is free of errors because God inspired the authors (Lindsell 90). On the contrary, the concept of limited inerrancy speculates that, the bible is true on specified areas about morality and faith among others. However, it is errant on matters pertaining scientific or historical events (Stuart 80). Strict inerrancy seems more convincing because the content or words of the bible are from God. Accord ing to Grudem, bible inerrancy means, â€Å"the inerrancy of Scripture means that Scripture in the original manuscripts does not affirm anything that is contrary to fact (49) while others, think there is no scripture, which confirms God inspired the authors.Advertising Looking for essay on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Relationship between inerrancy and inspiration The liberal Protestants and some Catholics disagree with strict inerrancy of the bible because it is inaccurate on scientific and historical matters and has religious politics (Stuart 67). Catholicism firmly support that the bible is inerrant (Imperato 100). For instance, some of the leaders acknowledge the bible as a firm and faithful book written without error; a book that teaches about God’s salvation (Geisler 294), which means the issue is not debatable per their doctrines. The catholic doctrines teach that God cannot insp ire people to write untrue events in the bible (Geisler 86). Therefore, God inspired both the words and the authors. Inspiration is a strong influence by God to human minds. Catholicism asserts that the words in the bible came directly from God but through the authors (Albl 79). On the other hand, some Protestants assert that, God inspired the original bible writings only (Greek, Armenian) and not the translated versions. â€Å"No single view of inspiration conveys the total and so true picture† (Earle 319). Therefore, God inspired different people to write the bible, which led to many genres. God guided each author to write in a different way depending on the applicable genre during the contemporary times. In relation to inspiration and inerrancy, the genres in the bible open up the human mind to understand God’s message. The various genres of the bible The diverse views about the inerrancy and inspirational nature of the bible remain debatable in churches except in C atholicism. This exemplifies that human will is human characteristic that is never satisfied. If satisfied, it lasts only for a while, which leaves the individual to desire more. Since human will stems from the individual, the general expectation is that the decisions and actions that actualize themselves through free will lead to the long-lasting satisfaction for the individual. However, that is never the case.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Word of God Scripture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Albl, Martin. Reason, Faith, and Tradition: Explorations in Catholic Theology. Winona,  MN: Anselm Academic, 2009 Earle, Ralph. â€Å"Revelation and Inspiration: The Spoken Word of God. A Contemporary  Wesleyan Theology 1.1 (1983): 319. Geisler, Norman. William E. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible. England: Moody  Publishers, 1986. Grudem, Wayne. Systematic Theology. Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Pre ss, 1994. Imperato, Robert. Footings: Creation, World Religions, Personalism, Revelation, and  Jesus Revised. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2009. Lindsell, Harold. Battle for the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976. Stuart, Douglas. Inerrancy and Common Sense. Ed. Roger Nicole and Ramsey,  Michaels. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980.Advertising Looking for essay on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Should Pornography Be Restricted by Law Term Paper

Should Pornography Be Restricted by Law - Term Paper Example The web has a reputation for being an uncontrolled and chaotic mass of information that scares some people as much as it intrigues others. Pornography has also carved out a substantial niche in this new media environment, proving that, perhaps, whether one likes it or not, pornography is not stopping, and is everywhere, especially in terms of dominating new media applications such as the web and the home video business (and now DVDs). This is a very profitable industry worldwide in a free market. a coded and polarized argument. On a societal level, pornography has positive and negative effects, but within the polarized and polemical arguments of advocates and censors, there tends to be more of a one-sided perspective. The objectification of women is one issue that centers a societal treatment of pornography, but again, in speaking (and asking questions) in a societal form, once misses out on the crux of the issue: is the individual to be free to pursue pornography, or is the society to be protected from it? Most women are objectified in pornography, but does this necessarily mean that they have to be objectified by it as consumers of it? Again, the issue is more one of the society and the individual being seen to be at odds in terms of representative and respective freedom (individual) and protection (society). Studies have contested that in none of the behavioral studies on pornography and violence â€Å"‘has a measure of motivation such as likelihood to rape ever ch anged as a result of exposure to pornography.’ Men who are already predisposed to violent attitudes toward women may be more sexually aroused by violent materials.  

A Feminist Examination of Pride and Prejudice Research Paper

A Feminist Examination of Pride and Prejudice - Research Paper Example Defining women in these terms has served to benefit men in all arenas, in the political, public, and private realms, while making this divide between the genders appear as a natural given that has always existed, throughout time. The ideology of gender has successfully placed women into a box, in which their voices are silenced, and their actions are rendered trivial, and thus invisible, or are highly scrutinized, and thus punished. However, the realization that the category of ‘woman’ is a social construction and not a biological imperative gave rise to a myriad of feminist theories that endeavored to locate and deconstruct â€Å"predominantly male cultural paradigms,† while salvaging women’s experiences from the wreckage of traditional historical and literary criticism that ignored, silenced and marginalized them (Green and Kahn 1). At the center of the male cultural paradigm is the power to create and recreate meaning from a male perspective, however unilateral or skewed it may be; de Beauvoir argues that the â€Å"representation of the world, like the world itself, is the work of men; they describe it from their own point of view, which they confuse with the absolute truth† (qtd. in MacKinnon 537). Men have used this power to name, and thus own, everything from the beginning of time; in the Genesis story of creation, not only was Eve created from Adam’s rib, she was also named by Adam, and accordingly, she became perceived as his property. This ability to create and recreate meaning is deeply entrenched in telling stories, most conventionally known as the writing of history, which has been dominated by men, who have written about men for men. Feminists have argued that, as a result of being able to write things into existence, men wield an uncontrollable amount of power to write the female body into a multitude of oppressed roles, and through systemic racism, sexist, heterosexism, and classicist domination, women have been

Diversification of Firms Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Diversification of Firms - Essay Example The needs of the customers constantly changes and the firms are often challenged to keep pace with the changes. In order to reduce these risks, a firm needs to diversify its portfolio of stocks (Solnik, 1995, p.89). In the current market, firms should not only focus on how to produce their goods and services and avail them to the clients in the market. Rather, the market dynamics require the firms to develop corporate strategies and respond to these market forces will providing balance to the objectives and goals of the firm (Thinking Made Easier, 2011). In response to the changing market trends, some firms have opted to diversify their operations. Diversification is a business strategy that has experienced significant growth in the recent past. Diversification involves the production and delivery of new products and service. It is mainly aimed at ‘increasing market profitability, smoother earnings, and greater capital markets and accumulating diverse expertise in diverse envir onments’ (Thinking Made Easier, 2011). However, it may be noted that these objectives of diversification are not often met. Diversification is a way of hiding from the inability by a firm to acquire and maintain competitive advantage over its competitors producing similar products. This paper asserts that diversification is not an effective strategy in the current market by focusing on the challenges associated with this business strategy. Types of diversification Diversification in business organizations can be considered in terms of the business processes or in terms of the products ad services involved. In the first respect, there are three types of diversification namely: vertical integration, horizontal diversification, and geographical diversification (Kotelnikov, 2011). Vertical integration refers to bringing together two or more businesses that are at different production stages to add on to the value chain (The Economist, 2009). Horizontal diversification involves ex tending operations to new business industries to produce new products in order to reduce the risks that are specific to a given industry sector (The Investor, 2009). On the other hand, geographic diversification involves moving into new markets to make use of the opportunities in these regions (Kotelnikov, 2011). In terms of the product, diversification can be grouped as related or unrelated (Kotelnikov, 2011). Related diversification occurs when a firm extends its operations to produce products and services that are still in the same production line as the existing products and services. On the other hand, unrelated diversification is a situation in which the firms extend to produce products and services in a completely different production line (Thinking Made Easier, 2011). Objectives of diversification Business organizations diversify their operations with certain fundamental objectives. Firstly, diversification is aimed at improving the implementation of the organizational proce sses and strategies (Kotelnikov, 2011). It enables the management of organizations to create some value for the shareholders of the organization. In this way, diversification is also aimed at improving the organizational structure and enhancing the structural position of each business unit in the organization (Kotelnikov,

The Rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire Essay

The Rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire - Essay Example The first part of this quotation suggests that without the historical backdrop of the Roman Empire, and without the cultural and political directives it brought to bear, the Christian religion could never have come to be, at least not in the form that we know. The second portion of the quotation suggests that the Christian religion has preserved the memory and something of the auspices of the Great Empire, as a necessary component of cultural transmission--as a necessary if incidental consequence of preserving and furthering itself. In large measure, both assertions are true. The Roman Empire made Christianity possible, first by bringing relative order and stability to those under its governance. Without the rise of the Roman city-state under a central power, it is easy to imagine small, disparate tribes of rural, agrarian folk remaining close to the cycles of nature and loyal to the simple ritual observances of old pagan polytheism. Next, for all its dealings with the eternal, Chris tianity is a religion with strong historical and political roots. The historical embeddedness of this religion is undeniable. As Harold Mattingly points out, "All the great religions of the world speak to the passing generations of that which is outside the time order, the Eternal, that 'which was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be.' Some of these religions--not all--are very closely related to history. Mohammed, great prophet of Islam, rose to sudden greatness at the very moment in the seventh century when the empires of Rome and Persia had fought one another to a standstill. Jesus Christ, the Eternal Word, 'who was in the beginning with God', was born in the Palestine of Herod the Great and, as we repeat in the Creed, 'suffered under Pontius Pilate'. The sacred history of Mithras, on the other hand--his birth from the rock, his solemn meal with the Sun-god, his slaying of the great bull--is quite outside time. The early history of Christianity cannot be fully understood wi thout a knowledge of the world into which it came" (5). The world into which this new faith emerged was characterized by expanding empire, with the burdens of increasing taxation to fund the political and military machine and establish the benefits of relative peace, political unity and solidarity under the Roman Emperor. This was also a world where people maintained a belief in many gods and observed ritual sacrifices to those gods in exchange for good fortune. The statues and temples of these gods were visited and given homage by people of all stations, including the Emperor himself. Iconic images were engraved upon the coinage of the Empire, and the line between fidelity to the old gods and fidelity to the Empire of Rome was often blurred. Therefore, the emergence of an exclusive, monotheistic religion, that shunned all the vestiges of the older religions, offered a certain threat to political stability. The attitudes of the Roman Emperors and their officiators toward the Christians, in the first centuries of the new faith, varied from blind indifference to outright persecution, depending upon the emperor and the climate of the times. Likewise the attitudes of the Christians toward the Roman State varied, from individual to individual and from time to time, as the new religion grew. According to Grant, "Within the Christian communities of the second century two different but equally extreme minority positions were assumed. On the one hand, there were those, especially in Asia Minor, who under the influence of apocalyptic prophecy insisted upon an intensified expectation of the imminent end of society and the descent of the "heavenly Jerusalem" in Phrygia. On the other, there were those who turned their backs on the world and took the gospel to the world through the planetary spheres above and come to

ISSUES IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ISSUES IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Essay Example 21). In the event that such a situation arises, the judges must ensure proper interpretation of the statute before applying the statute in a case. The interpretation of such statutes is important to ensure proper identification and elimination of any ambiguity in the statute before applying the law in deciding a given case. However, this has never been an easy undertaking to many judges. As a result, in interpreting any statute, they must follow certain rules and procedures contained in the Interpretation Act of 1978. Apart from following the rules and procedures contained in the Interpretation Act of 1978, judges also have certain rules that help them in interpreting a statute with an ambiguity or error. The first rule that judges must apply in the interpretation of any given statute is the literal rule. Normally, under the literal rule, the judges to a case are required to give the statute its ordinary meaning without any amendment. This implies that the statute is taken the way pa rliament has made it without making sense of the law as applied in the case of R v Harris (1836) 7 C & P 446 (Gifford 1990, p. 14). In this case, the defendant was accused of biting the nose the plaintiff’s nose. ... The judges attributed this to the fact that the words stab cut or wound in their literal meaning means there is the use of an instrument. This resulted in the squashing of the defendant’s conviction, as noted by (Sullivan 2007, p.38). The same literal rule was applied in the interpretation of ambiguity, in statute, in Fisher v Bell [1961] 1 QB 394. In this case, the statute the defendant displayed a knife at the window of his shop with a price tag indicating that it was for sale. This is notwithstanding the fact that the statute law criminalized any offer for sale of a flick knife. However, the court quashed the defendant’s conviction on grounds that displaying goods in a shop does not constitute to an ‘offer,’ rather an invitation to treat. The judges also applied the literal rule in the interpretation of Whitely v Chappel (1868) LR 4 QB 147(Solan 2010, p.31). The judges can also apply the golden rule in the interpretation of a statute. The golden rule is mainly applied in the interpretation of a statute where the judges feel that the use of the literal rule may result in absurdity or inconsistency. As such, the event that the judges are convinced that applying the literal rule may result in inconsistency or ambiguity then they are allowed to proceed and apply a secondary meaning of the statute. The application of the golden rule has been demonstrated in a number of cases in the past. One such was in R v Allen (1872) LR 1 CCR 367 in which the defendant was accused of bigamy (Solan 2010, p. 28). The statute at that time prohibited bigamy by maintaining that any person already married cannot marry another person as long as the other partner is still alive. When deciding the case, the judges noted an ambiguity as

The Rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire Essay

The Rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire - Essay Example The first part of this quotation suggests that without the historical backdrop of the Roman Empire, and without the cultural and political directives it brought to bear, the Christian religion could never have come to be, at least not in the form that we know. The second portion of the quotation suggests that the Christian religion has preserved the memory and something of the auspices of the Great Empire, as a necessary component of cultural transmission--as a necessary if incidental consequence of preserving and furthering itself. In large measure, both assertions are true. The Roman Empire made Christianity possible, first by bringing relative order and stability to those under its governance. Without the rise of the Roman city-state under a central power, it is easy to imagine small, disparate tribes of rural, agrarian folk remaining close to the cycles of nature and loyal to the simple ritual observances of old pagan polytheism. Next, for all its dealings with the eternal, Chris tianity is a religion with strong historical and political roots. The historical embeddedness of this religion is undeniable. As Harold Mattingly points out, "All the great religions of the world speak to the passing generations of that which is outside the time order, the Eternal, that 'which was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be.' Some of these religions--not all--are very closely related to history. Mohammed, great prophet of Islam, rose to sudden greatness at the very moment in the seventh century when the empires of Rome and Persia had fought one another to a standstill. Jesus Christ, the Eternal Word, 'who was in the beginning with God', was born in the Palestine of Herod the Great and, as we repeat in the Creed, 'suffered under Pontius Pilate'. The sacred history of Mithras, on the other hand--his birth from the rock, his solemn meal with the Sun-god, his slaying of the great bull--is quite outside time. The early history of Christianity cannot be fully understood wi thout a knowledge of the world into which it came" (5). The world into which this new faith emerged was characterized by expanding empire, with the burdens of increasing taxation to fund the political and military machine and establish the benefits of relative peace, political unity and solidarity under the Roman Emperor. This was also a world where people maintained a belief in many gods and observed ritual sacrifices to those gods in exchange for good fortune. The statues and temples of these gods were visited and given homage by people of all stations, including the Emperor himself. Iconic images were engraved upon the coinage of the Empire, and the line between fidelity to the old gods and fidelity to the Empire of Rome was often blurred. Therefore, the emergence of an exclusive, monotheistic religion, that shunned all the vestiges of the older religions, offered a certain threat to political stability. The attitudes of the Roman Emperors and their officiators toward the Christians, in the first centuries of the new faith, varied from blind indifference to outright persecution, depending upon the emperor and the climate of the times. Likewise the attitudes of the Christians toward the Roman State varied, from individual to individual and from time to time, as the new religion grew. According to Grant, "Within the Christian communities of the second century two different but equally extreme minority positions were assumed. On the one hand, there were those, especially in Asia Minor, who under the influence of apocalyptic prophecy insisted upon an intensified expectation of the imminent end of society and the descent of the "heavenly Jerusalem" in Phrygia. On the other, there were those who turned their backs on the world and took the gospel to the world through the planetary spheres above and come to

HR Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

HR Management - Essay Example It is also responsible for the devising of strategy and its apposite implementation on the staff members, conducting training sessions for them and arranging seminars, meetings and discussions for the boosting up of their morale. In addition, forecasting, planning, allocation of resources and keeping the work environment healthy, steady and peaceful are also included in the responsibilities of human resource department. Human resource department also maintains equilibrium within the organisation and condemns any type of discriminatory behaviour on the basis of caste, class, community, ethnicity, race, religion, age-group, sexual orientation and gender, where no biasness or prejudice could be inflicted upon the employees on the basis of above-described characteristics. â€Å"HR Managers are usually the ultimate sources of expert advice and guidance on harassment and discrimination in their centres. They need to be knowledgeable of centre’s policy but also have an understanding of harassment and discrimination beyond the policies themselves.† (Retrieved from genderdiversity.cgiar.org) Consequently, sexual discrimination is strictly prohibited in workplace, and the persons guilty of such acts are liable to be tried at the court of law. The government has strictly condemned gender discrimination in work places at both governmental and private sectors. It has issued decrees and passed anti-discriminatory laws including Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and the Equal Pay Act, so that the female employees could also obtain same status equal to men at organisations and work places. Hence, the above-described provisions of Sex Discrimination Act 1975 manifestly view discrimination between men and women on the basis of their gender as the discriminatory one. Though, the act has been in vogue for the last three and half decades, yet it is mere theoretical in nature; as in

The conflict between Russia and Ukraine Essay Example for Free

The conflict between Russia and Ukraine Essay The conflict between Russia and Ukraine over the annual gas transactions and dealings has been mostly intermittent. This presents the gravity of the matter, alongside the fact that the conflict has mainly been seen to transcend the two parties so as to largely affect European countries that heavily rely on this gas. The negative effect of the war stems from the fact that the gas is clearly seen to be Russian, and the transiting route for this gas is Ukraine. Substantial lists of those countries that are hurting as a result of this state of affair are the actual EU member states and the potential EU member states. The situation at the moment continues to aggravate, given the fact that these countries are in the verge of facing an acute disruption of oil supply, a situation that experts such as Adamski, Johnson and Schweiss (2006)[1] say is likely to culminate into a dearth in security in energy supply. This state of affair only means that European Union is to undergo a lot of repercussions and has a lot of vested interests in the ongoing discussions on the common energy policy. At the moment, it is true that the incumbent conflict has placed the issue of solidarity among the EU member states into the limelight. Herein, there is a rush being made at a full throttle by EU nations to ensure a steady supply of gas individually so as to ward off cases of disruptions. Similarly, these countries in Europe are trying to ensure redistribution from non affected member states, to those that are affected. However, the tenability of this rule is called to questions severally, owing to the diversity of interests that the member states have. Apart from the above effects, sundry types of effects the gas clamor has wrought on European countries are addressed heretofore. Bilateral and Multilateral suspicion among European nations and the plummeting of Gas Supply It can be said with some degree of lucidity that the Russian- Ukrainian conflict has taken a new twist into this affair that is causing spiraling degree of tension in the entire Europe. January 6th 2008 marked a new phase in this affair as the chief Ukrainian gas company, Naftogaz accused publicly, the Russian gas giant, Gazprom of making cuts to Europe by at least two-thirds.   As a rebuttal to this, the deputy Chief Executive Officer of Gazprom Alexander Medvedev, made stark indictments of the Ukrainian government for having shut down, at least three fourths of its export pipelines (Carr, 2007)[2]. At the moment, the underlying issue is that Russia has assuaged the level of supply for her natural gas, meaning that two-fifths of EU’s total gas imports have been extirpated. Because of this, predominantly Eastern European countries remaining dependent on Russian imports have remained consistently susceptible to questionings over energy dependence. Similarly, EU has been grilled too, on the account that its policy makers have always talked of finding and securing recourse to Russian gas continually without any achievement to show for it. On a domestic front, since January 6th, Eastern Europe countries have remained subjected to gas rationing, following announcements by the OMV, an Austrian energy company that its daily supply of natural gas had plummeted by 10%. According to LeCoq and Paltseva (2008)[3], this was followed by Romania reporting a reduction in natural gas supplies by 75%, followed by Hungary’s 25%, and Bulgaria’s 15%.   In the same vein, Croatia, the Czech Republic and Poland reported diminishing amounts of gas supply, albeit on a smaller scale. Stalling Growth of the European Countries’ Economy It is pointed out by political scientists and economists such as Scott (2009)[4] that the present standoff over gas between Ukraine and Russia is only bound aggravate the economic crunch in countries of Eastern Europe. This is because; many of these countries are presently facing exorbitant prices in fuel commodities too: a situation that means that even the cost of electric power has skyrocketed of late. The above state of affair, leading to high cost of production, only means that commodity prices are also likely to take a nosedive. These glaring facts are well underscored by the fact that Slovakia announced on January 7th 2009, that it was facing a state of emergency, due to dwindling reserves. Similarly, whereas Hungary can barely breathe due to stifled gas consumption by industrial users, Croatia, Turkey and Slovenia now have their gas supplies totally severed.   Nonetheless, according to Pierre Noel’s calculations, the most affected countries are: Lithuania, Latvia, Slovakia and Hungary (Scott, Ibid). Stunted Development in the Industrial Sector It is pointed out by economists such as Lacolizado (2003)[5] that the current situation is also likely to subject a lot of Eastern European countries to industrial stagnation. This development comes in the wake of the revelation that smaller countries in Eastern Europe are witnessing foreclosures in the industrial sector, following two reasons: the minimal and deficient supply of gas in the oil- dependent industrial sector; and the rising prices in gas and gas products, owing to the miniscule supply and the increased demand. As a state, Slovakia remains the most express epitome of the above scenario, as it is making indictments over the dwindling reserves that has entrenched a state of emergency in this country.   Hungary also reports inefficient industrial supply of gas in the industrial sector, as a factor that has inculcated retrogressive tendencies in the industrial sector. Loss of Credibility by the EU One of the issues that undercut the continual standoff between Russia and Ukraine is the fact that EU itself cannot come to the rescue of many nations in this situation, given the fact that although having a clear grasp on what the oil war portends, yet, EU lacks the moral authority to â€Å"correct† either side. Neither can EU simply coerce Ukraine to resume transportation, nor can it side with Ukraine against Russia. In 2006, EU which has been supporting Ukraine traditionally as a fledgling democracy; accused Russia of political patronage and espionage towards Ukraine (Scott, Op ct). Apart from the fact that pushing Russia to resume oil transportation and supply would confirm fears of EU’s lopsidedness against Russia, EU knows so well that the current impasse is not due to Russia’s machinations. Compelling Ukraine to resume her gas transit obligations would hurt her as a democratic and economic youngling.   The only recourse left for EU is to keep issuing general statements and to keep calling sides for negotiations. It is by the virtue of this EU’s apparent failure that it scored a mere 33% in 2008 in votes from citizens in EU member countries, as far as its credibility is concerned. Conclusion By extension of the above Eastern Europe gas crises, researches point out that in the next decade, the world is going to witness an intensified wave of dependency on major powers in Eastern Europe by relatively smaller economies such as Lithuania, Latvia, Turkey, Slovenia and Poland. These major powers in the Eastern block are bound to be only two- Germany and Russia. This is because, Russia herself monopolizes the supply of gas, while Germany on the other hand, has a separate energy deal with Russia. Apart from the fact that these two countries are the most developed in Eastern Europe, their accessibility to gas while their neighbors suffer lack, is bound to widen the industrial chasm between these two sides. References Adamski, J., Johnson, M. and Schweiss, C. (2006). The Evolution of Europe and New Security Threat. Colorado: Ashgate Publishing. Carr, A. (2007). The Gas Conflict in Europe. California: University of California. Europa Publications. (1999). The Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern Europe. Europa Publications. Lacolizado, A., et al (2003). The Position of Russia in Eastern Europe. New York: Rutledge. LeCoq, A. and Paltseva, P. (2008). Ascertaining Security and External Supplies in the EU. Retrieved From: http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:LZaiqxBpVawJ:www2.hhs.se/site/policybriefs/Russia_Ukraine%2520comment.pdf+HOW+THE+GAS+CONFLICT+IN+RUSSIA+AND+NEAR+COUNTRIES+AFFECTED+EUROPEcd=2hl=enct=clnkgl=ke Scott, M. (Jan 6th 2009). Russian-Ukrainian Conflict Besets Europe: Business Week. Retrieved From: http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:MM8_mTzwy2QJ:www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/blog/europeinsight/archives/2009/01/russia-ukraine.html+HOW+THE+GAS+CONFLICT+IN+RUSSIA+AND+NEAR+COUNTRIES+AFFECTED+EUROPEcd=1hl=enct=clnkgl=ke

A Major Problem In Palm Oil Mill Effluent Engineering Essay

A Major Problem In Palm Oil Mill Effluent Engineering Essay In Malaysia, for example, 9.9 million tons of solids wastes consisting of empty fruit bunch , fibre and fruit shell and approximately 20 million tons of palm oil mill effluent (POME) are generated every year. In response to this, there has been increasing efforts to manage the wastes generated from mills. A major problem in Palm Oil Mill Effluent is their Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) characteristic in final discharge (waste water). BOD is a chemical procedure for determining how fast biological organisms use up oxygen (through degradation of organic material) in a body of water. COD is to determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water. The purpose of this study was to minimize the BOD and COD level in waste water treatment plant using the Sequencing Batch Reactor Process (SBR) system. The capability of treatment efficiency was proven during the system is widely used in other industry. As Malaysia forges ahead with its plan to become a fully developed nation, palm oil mills will have to adapt to various new challenges, including more stringent environmental regulation, labor shortage and competition from other lower cost palm oil producing countries. Basically milling technology has not changed in terms of developing a new sustainable and economics process to extract more oil and kernel. This may sound odd with so many new mills built and best time to incorporate new technology being to start on a green field. Anyway new technology has developed with concentrated on better mechanical handing, higher throughput, and more durable and reliable equipment with longer intervals between failure and renewal. The extraction of palm oil and kernel from the palm fruit is a commonly known in palm oil process. But this extraction process also produces a brown effluent which can devastate any aquatic life if dumped directly into our river. It is estimated that for every tone of palm oil produced, 2.5 tons of wastewater is generated. Thus, with Malaysias palm oil production is standing close to 8 million tons per annum , the amount of palm oil mill effluent ( POME ) generated would be equivalent to that of sewage discharged by a population of 22 million people Palm oil mill effluents are high volume liquid wastes which are non toxic but have an unpleasant odor. They are highly polluting. The Biological and Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD COD) of this effluent is very high and goes for the Total Nitrogen, Ammonia Nitrogen and Oil Grease. The effluent also acidic. The nature of raw effluent, it is hot, has a bad aroma and brown in color. An effluent with its quality and quantity were to be discharged into river, all aquatic life will perish. At present there are many methods to treat this raw effluent. The most common method of treatment being employed is the biological treatment. This method of treatment is by using a combine effect of the aerobic, anaerobic and facultative ponds; where at the end of the treated effluent is dumped into a river. Alternatives treatment methods have propped up in the recent past. In this case, proposed a method which involved Sequencing Batch reactor ( SBR ) Technology with aerated oxygen enriched air. The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a batch process for treating wastewater. This process is capable to minimized BOD and COD in a reactor. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Typical Flow Charts Typical Palm Oil Mill Schematic Flow Diagram As the palm oil industry grows rapidly, the number of palm oil mills also increases significantly especially in Malaysia. Therefore, one of the major problems arises from this industry is the large amount of wastes generated during the processes. Generally, operation of the palm oil mill generates many by-product and liquid waste which may pose a significant impact on the environment if they are not dealt with properly. The most common method is biological effluent treatment system (ponds). 2.2 Effluent Treatment Plant The function of the biological effluent treatment plant is to treat the mill liquid waste to levels within the prescribed limits set by the Department of Environment (D.O.E). The method of biological treatment in the mill is the anaerobic process. This process comprises three stages: The anaerobic digestion in the acidification phase The anaerobic digestion in the methanogenic phase The quiescent facultative stage of aerobic digestion. The complete anaerobic digestion or bio-degradation of the mill effluent is a complex operation as this process requires the acid forming organisms to grow in harmony with the methanogenic formers. Any imbalance of activities of these two organisms would upset the digestion process. The acid producing bacteria and their associated enzymes degrade most type of organic material into fatty acids. The methanogenic bacteria convert the soluble products of the acid produces into methane and carbon dioxide. The acidification stage is controlled to promote the growth of the acid formers. While in the second stage i.e. the methanogenic phase, the environment is optimum to form the methane formers. The biological effluent treatment plant in the mill comprises of the following: De-oiling tank 2 Acidification ponds 1 primary anaerobic pond 2 anaerobic maturation ponds 2 facultative ponds De- sludging facilities De-oiling tank/ sludge pit Sludge waste from this mill is pumped into the tank. The purpose of this tank is to trap remnants of free oil and permit solids to settle out. Solids settled here should be removed on a regular basis in order that working levels be maintained. Regular checks should be made and any trace of oil here must be removed. Acidification ponds There are 2 ponds and these are operated in parallel. The acidification stage is a very rapid process converting the organic components of the waste water into volatile fatty acids (vfa) and depresses the pH of the system. However recycling of the anaerobic liquor is done here for buffering i.e. Obtaining the desirable pH level Cooling to obtain the desired temperature Seeding i.e. introducing active organisms population The above is practiced at this stage to prepare the feed before entering into the anaerobic ponds. Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) here in each pond is 2 days Temperature: 35ËÅ ¡c 45ËÅ ¡c PH: 4.0 to 5.5 Vfa: 5000 mg/l Primary anaerobic In this stage the strictly anaerobic bacteria called methanogen converts the volatile acids to methane, CO2 and other trace gases. Destruction efficiencies are high here wherein from a high B.O.D. of 24,000mg/l B.O.D. levels of the supernatant at the pond outlet are reduced to 300mg/l. Temperature at Anaerobic 2 outlet is approx. 30-35ËÅ ¡c with a pH in the region of 5.5 to 6.5. Vfa=1000 to 2000 mg/l. Alkalinity = 1500 to 2000 mg/l. Anaerobic Maturation Pond This is a final step of the methanogenic anaerobic stage where further reduction of BOD is made possible. BOD at this stage is down to about 200mg/l . Temperature at the outlet end is 20 to 30ËÅ ¡c with a pH in the region of 7.0. Vfa is approximately 700mg/l and alkalinity above 1500mg/l. Facultative Ponds The use of anaerobic digestion alone would not be sufficient to meet the standards stipulated by DOE hence further treatment of effluent is necessary in the facultative. These facultative ponds are for quiescent aerobic respiration of the aerobically treated waste water. These 3 ponds are in series and in these ponds sufficient oxygenation to the waste water is introduced. The effluents after sedimentation in these ponds are allowed to discharge into the water course, with BOD levels below 110 ppm as required by the Dept. of Environment. Temperature at the outlet of the Facultative is 25 to 30ËÅ ¡c with a pH of 7.0 9.0. Vfa less than 100. Alkalinity in the region of 1000mg/l. De-sludging of the ponds The ponding system is operated at low rate with organic loading ranging from 0.2 to 0.35 kg BOD/cu.m/day. Because of the size and configuration of the ponds mixing is hardly adequate. Also the rising biogas will bring along with them fine suspend solids and therefore it is common to find islands of solids floating in the anaerobic pond. This often results in dead spots which will lead to short circuiting in the ponds. Undoubtedly it is very labor intensive to maintain the ponds in satisfactory condition at all times. It is also imperative to ensure that as little oil as possible be allowed into the ponds as the oil will agglomerate with the rising solids brought up by the biogas and from a scum which is difficult to remove. Due to the inadequate mixing by biogas, solids build up at the bottom of the ponds, especially the anaerobic ones. Excessive solids built up at the bottom of the ponds will reduce the effective design capacity and consequently shorten the hydraulic retention time. This will adversely affect the treatment efficiency of the system. In view of the above regular desludging of the ponds is a must. A de-sludging pond is made available for this purpose. Solids from the ponds are pumped using submersible pumps into this desludging pond and water liquid recycled while solids are left to dry out and subsequently removed. 2.3 Operation procedures Sludge pits / Fluming tank Supervisors / operators are to visually check the pit on a regular basis throughout processing and ensure that a trace of oil is recovered soonest possible. Also when excessive trace of oil is sighted, immediate measures must be taken to trace and arrest the source of this excessive oil loss. Schedule cleaning of the sludge pit and tanks must be instituted to remove solids / sands and any debris on a scheduled basis. Pumps in this area must be checked to be in good operating condition. Any faults or malfunction noticed must be reported for immediate repair. Buffering Ponds Ensure that recycling of anaerobic liquor is carried out as per instruction. Remove any solids scum / oil traces on a daily basis. Ensure free flow into and out of the ponds. Anaerobic ponds Monitor visually ponds bacteria for any signs of fouling. Solids removal should be carried on a regular basis. Ensure stirrer / mixers are operated as per instructions. Ensure that in flow and outlet discharge is proper and feed to downstream ponds is regulated as required. Facultative ponds Regulate final discharge as necessary. Ensure solids recycling where necessary. Desludging ponds Ensure that pumping of solids into the pond is monitored. Ensure that excessive liquid is recycled to the anaerobic ponds. 3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.2 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) Technology Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) is an activated sludge biological treatment process. The process uses natural bacteria and when the bacteria are aerated, they grow and multiply using the organics or pollution as food. This purifies the wastewater before it is discharged to the environment. The process is managed in a fill and draw, or batch fashion. This process allows for exceptional flexibility and controls which results in a highly treated effluent that will not harm the environment when it is discharged. Generally the SBR process can be conveniently described in five distinct steps: Step 1: Fill/React The treatment Reactor contains bacteria or biomass that processes the wastewater. The cycle starts with the Reactor at least half full of activated sludge. When the wastewater enters the Reactor, air is intermittently supplied by a blower, to maintain an aerobic (air enriched) environment. The pollution in the wastewater is consumed by the biomass as food. The biomass grows and multiplies during this treatment process assuring the system is sustained for further treatment. This cycle of filling and intermittent aeration continues until the Reactor has filled. Step 2: React only During this step incoming wastewater is diverted to a second Reactor or is stored. The full Reactor is aerated or mixed continuously during this step. The React only step provides time for additional treatment or polishing of the wastewater to meet required discharged consents. The duration of the react only step is easily adjusted at the computerized control panel. Step 3: Settle The biomass in the Reactor must be separated from the treated liquid or supernatant, so there will be sufficient biomass remaining for treatment of the next batch of wastewater. In the SBR system the Reactor becomes the settling device or clarifier when all the pumps and blowers are turned off. This creates quiescent settling conditions to allow the biomass and the treated liquid to separate. After settling, the treated clarified liquid is discharged or decanted from the Reactor. Step 4: Decant The treated clarified liquid is discharged or decanted using pumps which have their intake located at the midpoint of the Reactor depth. This assures that any floating debris or settled biomass is not discharged from the Reactor. A non-return valve on the pump intake prevents the entry of solids into the Decant pump and piping during the aerated treatment steps. Step 5: Idle When the Reactor has decanted, and there is no wastewater waiting to be pumped to the Reactor enters an idle or waiting phase. In idle, with no wastewater load, it is not necessary to run the blowers at the same rate as during the filling stage. The blowers automatically reduce the volume of air at idle, saving energy. When the Reactor receives more wastewater, it automatically switches back to the Fill/React step, and the entire cycle repeats. Sludge waste Since the biomass continues to grow or increase in volume during each treatment cycle it is necessary to remove excess biomass from the Reactor on a regular basis. The biomass volume is always maintained below the pump intake and at the proper level by means of automatic sludge waste pumps. The excess biomass is pumped to the Trash Tank at the end head end of the plant where it is anaerobically (without air) decomposed. Regular sludge wasting ensures that enough biomass remains in the Reactor to treat the next batch of wastewater, but does not increase to the point where it would be pumped out of the reactor during the Decant cycle. 3.3 FLOCCULATION TREATMENT Raw effluent from facultative pond (last pond) is pump into vertical steel clarifier. Flocculation agent and pH correction agent is dose into the pipe line before entering clarifier to ease coagulation process. PRE AERATION The clarified raw effluent will over flow into the 1st holding tank. Filling is estimated for 3 hours. While in the holding tank, the raw effluent is subjected to pre aeration for 2 hours before transfer to the reactor tank. Pre-aeration is done through fine air bubbles passes through an array of disc type diffuser at tank base. SBR PROCESS The pre-aeration effluent from holding tank is transferred into the reactor tank via transfer pump. The SBR process inside the reactor tank will be control through a present time for 24 hours operation based on the following activity: Filling 3 hours Slow aeration 4 hours Fast aeration 10 hours Settling 2 hours Discharge 2 hours Filling Pre-aerated anaerobic liquid is pump from holding tank. During start up, seeding of bacteria is carried out. The quantity from of seeding is depending on the MLSS concentration in the reactor. Slow aeration While filling up of the pre-aerated anaerobic liquid half of the diffuser inside the reactor tank will activate, via control valve install at the distribution header. Fast aeration Filling completed and full aeration processes activate. Settling To allow solids and liquids are separated under true quiescent conditions. Discharge The treated or clarified supernatant is pump into a final treated effluent tank for storage. The excess sludge will settle and remain in the reactor tank. Desludging will depend on the MLSS concentration, not to exceed 20-30 % by ratio of the pre-aerated anaerobic liquid. This can be done by taking sample and allow to settle naturally. Standby The reactor tank is ready for the next batch. The treated water will overflow through a constant level flexible outlet into a transfer (clarified) water tank. The clarified water enters an activated carbon filter via booster pump, which act to polish the water before discharge out to river. At this stage the BOD level should be à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 20 ppm. A reject line is installed to return treated effluent into anaerobic pond if the BOD level exceeds 20 ppm. 3.4 NOPOL- diffuser The NOPOL system has a suitable diffuser for any wastewater application. Reliable construction The main component of the system is the NOPOL dual layer polyethylene disc. This has a thin fine top for maximum oxygen transfer efficiency. All deposits are easily removed by the formic acid. The NOPOL disc aeration system is ideal for all biological processes. An aeration system covering the entire bottom of the basin gives the desired oxygen content throughout. Mixing energy is evenly distributed throughout the basin. Uniform mixing prevents any sludge sedimentation. Adjustment range-volume of air per diffuser is wide enough for any load variation. The disc aeration system does not cool down the activated sludge or produce any harmful aerosols. 3.5 SBR system tank and pipe layout 4.0 ANALYSIS 4.1 A BASIC DESIGN OF SBR SYSTEM Capacity : 1080 m ³ / day Influent BOD: 200 ppm Discharge BOD: 20 ppm Basic design data Actual waste water quantity discharged from plant : 1080 m ³ / day ( max ) Design waste water quantity : 1080 m ³ / day or 45 m ³ / hour BOD : 200 mg / l COD (assume) : 300 mg / l PH : 7.2 Temperature : 26 ËÅ ¡c Suspended solids (assume) : 300 mg / l Oil grease (assume) : 20 mg / l Sequence of operation of SBR reactor tank No.1 or 2 Filling and slow aeration time : 8 hours Fast aeration time : 12 hours Settling time : 2 hours Discharge of treated effluent : 2 hours Sizing of tanks Based on the above operation sequence and the two trains of SBR tank operating alternatively, the sizes of the holding tank and reactor tanks are as follows: Holding tank Tank required : 1 unit Waste water flow rate : 45 m ³ / hour The retention time for the holding tank : 6 hours Volume of tank required : 270 m ³ Selected holding tank size is 8700 m Ø ÃÆ'- 7.62 m height Capacity : 400 m ³ Reactor tanks Wastewater flow rate : 45 m ³ / hour No of tanks required : 2 units Retention required for reactor vessel : 12 hour Volume of waste water in each reactor tank : 540 m ³ Volume of activated sludge to be retained in reactor tank : 20 % of the waste water Therefore required volume of reactor tank : 648 m ³ Selected reactor tank size is 11650 mm Ø ÃÆ'- 7.62 m height Capacity : 800 m ³ Calculation of air required for aeration at reactor tank Process utilized : Palm Oil Mill Effluent Type of waste : Industrial Design flow : 1080 m ³ / day BOD5 : design 200 mg / l = 216 kg / day Temperature of waste : 26 ËÅ ¡c Dissolved oxygen to be maintained in waste water ( CÃŽÂ » ) : 2.0 mg / l Oxygen to BOD5 ratio : 1.5 (assume) Oxygen required per hour : (216 ÃÆ'- 1.5) / 12 = 27 kg / hour Oxygenation capacity required per hour = 02 required per hour / correction factor Correction factor = ÃŽÂ ± [(ÃŽÂ ²) (Cà Ã†â€™) CÃŽÂ »] 1.024 (à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾-20)/ Cà Ã†â€™H20 Cà Ã†â€™ H20: oxygen solubility factor ÃŽÂ ± = 0.9 ÃŽÂ ² = 0.95 Cà Ã†â€™ at 26ËÅ ¡c at 200 ft elevation = 8.1 1.024 (à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾-20) at 26ËÅ ¡c = 1.153 CÃŽÂ » = 2 ppm Therefore, oxygenation capacity required per hour = 27 / 0.7289 = 37.04 kg / hour Density of air at 26ËÅ ¡c = 1.18 kg / m  ³ Volume of air required taking oxygen content in air is 20% by unit weight = (37.04ÃÆ'-5m ³/hr)/1.18 = 157 m ³ / hour Efficiency of aeration by using Nopol diffuser at 4m water dept = 18 % at 4m ³ / hr per unit Flow rate of air blower required = 157 m ³ / hr / 18 % = 872 m ³ / hr Use air blower = 900 m ³ / hr No. of diffuser required = 900 / 4 = 225 pcs Therefore, No. of diffuser installed per reactor = 225 (for 1080 m ³/day) operating at 12 hours Determination of number of diffusers per tank for holding tank The required aeration for waste water in holding tank is to ensure saturation concentration of oxygen dissolved in water. Based on temperature of 26ËÅ ¡c, the saturation concentration of oxygen in water is = 8.11 mg/l With influent flow rate = 45 m ³ / hour Total oxygen required = 364.9 g / hour Allow 20% extra air to ensure saturation, the actual aeration rate = 438 g / hour No. of diffusers at 1 m ³ / hour per unit at 18 % = 11 nos. No. of diffusers installed at holding tank for primary aeration and mixing to saturation point = 30 nos. (At 0.4 pc/m ² distribution density) Total diffuser used for 2 trains system = 510 nos. Selection of two ( 2 ) units of surface aerator Model = EEE FA- 1010 Specifications are enclosed. The application of these surface aerations installed at facultative pond is for: Proper mixing of the effluent before pumping to the effluent treatment plant To supply some aeration to the facultative pond so as to minimize the inlet BOD to the effluent plant and at the same time to improve the bacteria activity. Selection of one ( 1 ) unit activated carbon filter at treated effluent discharge point Dimension = 2420 mm Ø ÃÆ'- 1828 mm SL Surface area = 4.59 m ² Flow rate = 60 m ³ / hour Flow velocity = 13.0 m / hour Volume of activated carbon = 4.1 m ³ The activated carbon filter acts as a polishing filter for the final treated effluent. 5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION A more responsible biological treatment process through a proven automated operation program responding on time every situation and alarm in a reactive way so that the plant performance can be maintained regardless of the operator attendance and equipment failure. Lower investment and recurrent cost, as secondary settling tanks and sludge return systems are not required. Lower space requirements. Better settling, as settling conditions in an SBR are Ideal while the sludge population changes towards better settle able micro-organisms. Improved effluent quality. Improved operational reliability. Hardly any or no smell problems. Better temperature control. Lower effluent COD and BOD. The batch nature process and high organic concentrations (feast) during Fill encourages the growth of organisms with high organic uptake rates. The famine period at the end of React encourages the utilization of recalcitrant organics. The combined effect of the feast and famine periods is the optimal removal of BOD and COD. Better settling sludge. The feast-famine conditions that naturally occur in each cycle promote the growth of floc-forming organisms and disfavor filamentous organisms, thereby eliminating the need for polymers. In a number of situations the application of an SBR system will thus result in lower investment as well as operational costs. Critical in this respect are the load and concentration of the wastewater, the design and the local situation. 6.0 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER WORK At this study, Sequencing Batch Reactor process, raw effluent from facultative pond (last pond) is pump into clarifier in system. Thereby, the pond still need for this system due to oil recovery in first 2 ponds. In future study, the pond system which consumed a large area needs to remove. The wastewater from the mills, directly pump to SBR system tanks for further treatment. The new method for oil recovery in SBR system will be taken in action. The discharge water which in brownish color need to be analyze due to remove the color.

How Our Universe Was Created :: essays papers

How Our Universe Was Created Creation Stories, myths that explain the origin of the universe, or cosmos. The origin of the cosmos forms one of the principal themes of mythology throughout the world. (Rev. Bruce Vawter). Cosmogony has attempted to explain everything from the Greek deities Uranus (sky god) and Gaea (earth goddess), to say the creation of humankind, after which the mythic cosmos comes to resemble the world of human experience. In mythic history, the earliest era of the world is usually the closest to perfection-a Golden Age or Garden of Eden. There are thirty-five religions that I have heard of and countless others that have not been documented. I have always wondered why we Latinos, African, Asians, Italians, Indians, and the rest of the cultures on this earth practice different religions and ideas. The answer is billions of years ago, in a galaxy far away, an intergalactic council was formed. The council members consisted of dozens of what we call Gods. Each was a ruler of a planet. And on each of these planets there were people who worshiped their Creator (God). The climate of each world was different from the other. Each planet could only sustain life for its people. The inhabitant’s needed a particular climate so that they could survive. Even there agriculture was dependant on the climate as well. One day the supreme deity who created each of the Gods, decided to allow each of the member’s to unite it’s people with the other. They wondered how they would be this since all of the planets differed in climate and no one could survive on the others planet. So it was decided that they would all create what today is know as the Milky Way. With careful planning the RNA/DNA was joined to create a human that would be able to withstand various climates and be able to eventually procreate. Fifteen billion years ago, give or take five billion years, the entirety of our universe was compressed into the confines of an atomic nucleus. Known as a singularity, this is the moment before creation when space and time did not exist. According to the prevailing cosmological models that explain our universe, an ineffable explosion, trillions

Free Essays: There is No Certainty in Dover Beach :: Arnold Dover Beach Essays

There is No Certainty in Dover Beach How can life or anything be so wonderful, but at times seem so unbearable? This is a question that Matthew Arnold may have asked himself one day, while writing Dover Beach. This is a poem about a sea and a beach that is truly beautiful, but hold much deeper meaning than what meets the eye. The poem is written in free verse with no particular meter or rhyme scheme, although some of the words do rhyme. Arnold is the speaker speaking to someone he loves. As the poem progresses, the reader sees why Arnold poses the question stated above, and why life seems to be the way it is. During the first part of the poem Arnold states, "The Sea is calm tonight" and in line 7, "Only, from the long line of spray". In this way, Arnold is setting the mood or scene so the reader can understand the point he is trying to portray. In lines 1-6 he is talking about a very peaceful night on the ever so calm sea, with the moonlight shining so intensely on the land. Then he states how the moonlight "gleams and is gone" because the "cliffs of England" are standing at their highest peaks, which are blocking the light of the moon. Next, the waves come roaring into the picture, as the y "draw back and fling the pebbles" onto the shore and back out to sea again. Arnold also mentions that the shore brings "the eternal note of sadness in", maybe representing the cycles of life and repetition. Arnold then starts describing the history of Sophocle's idea of the "Aegean's turbid ebb and flow". The sea is starting to become rougher and all agitated. Also the mention of "human misery" implies that life begins and ends, but it can still be full of happiness, and unfortunately, at the same time, sadness. "The Sea of Faith was once, too, at the full, and round earth's shore." The key word in that stanza is once, because it implies that he (Arnold) used to look at the sea in a different way than he does now. Throughout the whole poem, Arnold uses a metaphor to describe his views and opinions. Now he only hears its "melancholy, long, withdrawing roar." It seems as though Arnold is questioning his own faith. The whole poem is based on a metaphor - Sea to Faith.

In the country or in the city Essay

Where is the best place to raise a child, in the city or in the country? I would rather live and raise my family in the country, because of the clean environment, peaceful atmosphere, and smaller schools. My primary reason for choosing the country instead of the city is the clean environment. The air smells fresh and clean, because there are less cars creating pollution. In the city, there are busses, taxis, and cars on all the streets contributing harmful chemicals into the air. While automobiles are not the only cause of pollution, there are also more factories and plants to pollute the air. In the country, the only major industry would be farming, which does not pollute the air in any way. There are more people in the city breathing the air and less forest area to help control the pollution. Since there are less people in the country than in the city, the amount of littering on the roads is also less. The polluted air is very harmful to the human body and that is why I will choose to raise my family in the country where there is less pollution. The clean environment is not the only reason that I will choose to live in the country. Another reason for my decision to live in the country is the peaceful atmosphere. There are many more crimes committed in the city than in the country, because there is more drug use there. People with drugs are probably not going to sell them in the country, because they know they can sell more in the city. Drugs are not the only reason for the high crime rates in the city. There are shopping malls and businesses that are not in the country, which leads to more theft in the city. Also, the atmosphere in the country seems to be a much slower pace, because there are fewer people and jobs. The peacefulness in the country is very soothing and calming after a hard day at work. Also, I hope that my children will grow up to be good people, and I believe that the odds of that are much better if they are raised in the country rather than in the city. My last reason for choosing to live in the country instead of the city is that the schools in the country are much smaller than in the city. I believe  that smaller schools are better for the students. The schools in the city are much larger to accommodate the larger population of students that live there. I feel that the advantages of attending a smaller school are many. They have smaller classes, which gives the students more one-on-one time with their teacher. The teacher can really get to know each of their students and learn how they can help them be successful. In larger schools, teachers have too many students to have the chance to know each one personally, and they do not have the time to help them as much as a teacher in a smaller school. I also think it is easier for the students in a smaller school to make friends, because they get used to the same faces and know each other well. There are more students in larger schools, which will make it harder for them to get to know one another. City schools are also known for having cliques, which makes it hard for some students to be accepted by others. I believe that the smaller schools in the country are more beneficial than the larger schools in the city. In my opinion, the country is the best place to live and raise a family. I have discussed the three main reasons I chose the country rather than the city: the clean environment, peaceful atmosphere, and smaller schools. I hope others will agree that the country is the land of the free.

Public Health of the Developing Country of South Africa Essay

Abstract Studies and statistics have put the cost of one year requirement of standard essential medicines needed for the treatment of AIDS at $ 4000 to $ 6000 in developing countries like South Africa. This cost puts the medicines out of the reach of most of the people infected by HIV in the developing countries. In order to make the medicines available to all the needy people the cost should have been at least 95 percent less. The exorbitant price is because of the cost of the patents. The drugs protected by the intellectual property rights were required to treat diseases like Tuberculosis, in addition to the treatments of HIV/AIDS. Such drugs also included Hepatitis-B Vaccine. There has been a continuous criticism by the social activists and other public health associations, of the action by the World Trade Organization in making the developing countries implement the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement which deals with the protection of Intellectual Property rights relating to the essential drugs. They have also been condemning the attitude of the multinational companies in indulging in excessive lobbying to insist on the implementation of the IP rights protection which will have the effect of enhancing their earnings by charging exorbitant prices for the drugs and for putting the essential drugs and health care beyond the affordability of scores of people in the developing nations including South Africa. However under such circumstances the relationship between the government of South Africa and the international pharmaceutical companies had not been a conducive one – thanks to the implementation of the provisions of TRIPS Agreement. On the decision of the South African Government to pass the Medicines and Related Substances Amendment Act in the year 1997, 39 drug companies joined to initiate legal action against the government. The plea of the drug companies is that the Act gave too much freedom of action to the Health Minister and he acted beyond the legitimate interpretation of TRIPS. It was the endeavour of South Africa to make life saving drugs available at affordable prices. The country wanted to effectively utilize the compulsory licensing opportunities opened by TRIPS so that the prices of the drugs could be put under check. But since the action of the government posed a threat to the earning capacity of the international pharmaceutical companies they went to the extent of entering into litigation with the government of South Africa. Introduction TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) under the authority of the WTO were founded to protect worldwide intellectual property rights. The agreements, governing not only more general intellectual property rights but also those of the pharmaceutical industry, are fairly stringent causing many problems for developing countries especially South Africa which is being ravaged by epidemics which includes AIDS. According to a statistical survey by United Nations[1] 20 percent of the adult population in South Africa tests positive for HIV. The impact of the disease is such that the more than half a million children have been declared orphans. It is also reported that HIV/AIDS related diseases expect to reduce the average life expectancy in South Africa by 20 years in the year 2010. Therefore it can be inferred that the provision of treatment of HIV/AIDS in South Africa is a high priority issue[2]. It has been necessary for South Africa to circumvent part of the TRIPS agreements in an effort to protect its population.   AIDS is taking great toll of the country leaving families without parents and health care hospitals totally unable to cope. The United States currently insists on the TRIPS agreement being strictly adhered to and seems unable, or unwilling, to find a way to help the developing nations with this problem. There have been some efforts made to help them in this respect, for example compulsory licensing and parallel pricing and these methods will be examined in a later section. The negotiation of the TRIPS Agreement has been construed as one that was forcibly introduced by the developing countries against the objection of many of the developing nations. The industrial lobbies (multinational and transnational corporations) have convinced the governments of the developed countries to link the international trade with Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) so that the industrial advancement of the developing countries would be curtailed. This would automatically prevent imitation of technologies and increase the returns on research and development for the developed countries. Monopoly rights granted under IPR were mainly intended to deter the developing countries from advancing on the industrialization. Thus TRIPS Agreement and the protection of IPR have been used to ensure the comparative advantage of the developed countries in terms of the technological development. Under TRIPS countries like India, Brazil which manufactures generic medicines would not have the right to export such medicines with effect from 01 January 2005. This is so despite the fact that the importing countries do have the respective patents covering the drugs. Specifically the least developing countries have put a strong resistance to the requirements of TRIPS especially in the matter of granting the protection rights for the products and processes. While developing countries were required to implement the provisions within one year of reaching the Agreement, the developing countries were given time until the end of the year 2004. In the matter of protection of rights of pharmaceutical products the lease developing countries have been allowed to delay the implementation of TRIPS Agreement provisions till the year 2016. The peculiarity with the provisions of TRIPS is that it allows any country to override the patent right under certain specific circumstances by using the compulsory licensing procedure. For instance when there is a shortage of drugs or the prices of the drugs are too high to make them unaffordable the country can override the patent if the prescribed procedures are followed. This provision of TRIPS presupposes that all the countries do possess the required manufacturing facilities which enable them to use the provisions to produce generic medicines under extraordinary circumstances. But unfortunately many of the developing and least developing countries do not posses such facilities, and hence they would be left with shortage of such drugs. In addition they are also not allowed to import the generics from those countries that possess them. In any case these countries do not have enough power and administrative capabilities to invoke the TRIPS Agreement either due to the reason that they do not possess the know-how required to reengineer the drugs or they fear sanctions from the US and the West[3]. TRIPS Agreement under WTO The TRIPS Agreement is often thought of as one of the three â€Å"pillars† of the WTO (World Trade Organization), trade in goods and services being the other two.[4] TRIPS, initially part of GATT. But becoming part of the WTO brief, was founded to ensure that protection of intellectual property rights was not, of itself, an obstruction to trade and to increase cooperation between members. Under the TRIPS agreement each member state has an obligation to treat all other member states equally. The WTO negotiates between members and helps them to understand and carry out the rules and regulations they have signed up to. It also aids cooperation between members and acts as a watchdog to ensure that the agreement is adhered to. Marketing rights of a patent, when first applied for, are given for a period of 5 years or until the patent is finally approved (whichever is the shorter period) but even during this period members must comply with the rules and regulations as set out in Articles 3 and 4. Because of the nature of the agreement especially as regards pharmaceuticals, it was decided that minimum standards could be used, the USA prefers the higher standards but accepts the minimum as the developing world does not have the capacity to work to the higher standards at the present time. Public awareness of the serious issue of AIDS and other diseases has led to the belief   (by the WTO) that health must, in the final analysis, come before agreements since the spread of AIDS cannot be the sole responsibility of one country. In trying to bridge the gap between the pharmaceutical companies and the developing nations, TRIPS has endeavoured to bring the two sides together by allowing extensions to drugs’ patents but has also allowed some compulsory licensing. Article 3(a) under the TRIPS Agreement states that treatment of all members must be equal,   but Article 3(b) is a get-out clause and Article 4(b) states that all members are equal, unless an †¦agreement was entered into before the WTO agreement.   However, the Council for TRIPS must be informed of any non-observance of Article 3(a) under Article 3(b). The TRIPS Agreement ensures that members discharge their commitments to the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Part of the United Nations WIPO was set up in 1974 specifically to direct international treaties and agreements. The Paris Convention on Industrial Property and the Berne Convention on Copyright, two of the major treaties have been brought under the TRIPS umbrella.   The former states that â€Å"members must comply with the obligations they have towards each other† and â€Å"nothing must stand in the way of such obligations†.  Ã‚   However, as noted, there is a get-out clause in cases of emergency which has to be acknowledged by members to the agreements. There is also an agreement that member countries monitor each other for infringements.   Most important in terms of worldwide health problems is Article 67 of TRIPS which states   that developed countries must assist developing countries with the development of their intellectual property rights, it states: â€Å"In order to facilitate the implementation of this Agreement developed country Members shall provide, on request and mutually agreed terms and conditions, technical and financial cooperation in favour of developing and least-developed country members† â€Å"Such cooperation shall include assistance in the preparation of laws and regulations on the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights as well as on the prevention of their abuse, and shall include support regarding the establishment or reinforcement of domestic offices and agencies relevant to these matters, including the training of personnel.†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Programmes to assist the developing nations have already been promoted and are being assisted by the WTO secretariat and WIPO. TRIPS Agreement in Relation to Medicines   Since most pharmaceutical research and development is carried out in developed countries the organisations involved feel that they should be better protected.   Most drugs cost millions and take years to test and develop before being allowed onto the market, the industry naturally want returns by way of profits on sales. AIDS medication has been a particularly important breakthrough since: ‘HIV infects an estimated 45 million persons worldwide†Ã‚   but there are also â€Å"†¦1.86 billion cases of infection with mycobacterium tuberculosis†[5] therefore, it is imperative that something be done to help alleviate this type of suffering which, with the ever growing number of tourists, should be the concern of not only those countries in which these epidemics are raging but every nation whose borders are open to travel from other countries. The TRIPS agreement, currently, seems to err on the side of the drugs’ companies, probably because they have such powerful lobbies and are part of the new world-wide elite of corporations which, according to Janet Dine, are increasingly importing their own ethics into the developing countries and virtually taking over, creating in the process an impoverished and unhealthy nation, they, the indigenous population have to take what is offered often at less than subsistence wages and become more dependant on the corporations who have moved into their countries in search of ever increasing profits. The money the corporations make from taking over in developing countries returns, not to the people of that region, but to their own countries.  Ã‚   With tax incentives and a population who take any work they can get to survive at the lowest rates offered, these Corporations appear to be fuelling a crisis in health for some of the poorest nations in the world.[6] Although The TRIPS agreement does allow for compulsory licensing in an emergency, each country must first negotiate with rights’ holders and must use those drugs obtained under such a license only for the emergency period and not for any commercial gain. Specific areas, such as South Africa, are going through a health crisis which needs the drugs already available to ameliorate it, however, in spite of clause 3(b), they are getting no further forward in their fight to help their citizens to overcome unprecedented death rates that the epidemics are producing. In spite of Articles 30/31, which allow for compulsory licensing, the poorest and least developed nations are fighting against the cost of the use of patents and the epidemics themselves. Compulsory licensing does not adequately cover the needs of such nations in   â€Å"sub-Saharan Africa since they do not have facilities to manufacture their own drugs.†[7] Protection of intellectual property is not part of the culture of many countries, nevertheless, the TRIPS Agreement was signed on 15th April 1994 by 117 nations. The agreement allows intellectual property rights to be â€Å"enforced by trade sanctions†[8] and, although some countries were not in complete agreement, international trade is vital to their economic growth so, however reluctantly, they signed.   Inhibitors, which have done much to control AIDS in the west, cost as much as $10.000 per head annually but international trade is the life blood of developing nations therefore they had little choice but to do so.[9] 4. TRIPS and Developing Countries It has been observed that implementing TRIPS Agreement and recognizing IPR on pharmaceutical products and processes would result in the following problems to the developing countries[10]: The minimum 20 years protection to the IPR would grant a virtual monopoly for a pharmaceutical company over its patented drug and the company would be able to charge exorbitant prices on the drugs without competition which in turn would keep the drug prices very high during the period of protection. It is also not possible to bring any generic equivalent into the market due to the TRIPS Agreement. This would deny the patients cheaper alternative drugs. The product and process patents provide for the protection of the product as well as the technology. Under the TRIPS Agreement the countries are given the right to make application for the protection of patent rights on drugs for a period extending up to twenty years. After the expiation of this period the countries can get the protection extended for further periods to the processes being employed in the manufacture of the drugs. This no doubt creates a monopoly situation on the drugs. Such protection also throw the domestic pharmaceutical producers in the developing countries out of market as they have to compete with large multinational pharmaceutical manufacturers which is not possible for small producers in the developing nations who use cheaper generic alternatives. Moreover such production may not be carried out by them during the 20 year protection period. Under TRIPS Agreement patent rights need to be granted irrespective of the fact that the products are imported or domestically manufactured[11]. This implies that the transnational corporations can supply global markets under the monopoly of patent rights even without producing any medicines in the developing countries by simply importing them into the developing countries. There will be no flow of technology or foreign direct investments into the developing countries as envisaged by the WTO However under Article 66 of the TRIPS the least developed countries were allowed to postpone the application of the provisions relating to the patents for a period of 10 years on specific application.[12] 5. Exceptions to the Patent Protection of Pharmaceuticals    Parallel importing – implying that the developing counties are allowed to import the drugs from the cheaper markets for resale in their respective countries and thereby lower the prices of drugs. Compulsory licensing – under compulsory licensing scheme, the government acting through the courts of law is empowered to provide a license in favor of a third party. Such license may be granted by the government even without the prior consent of the license holder. However the compulsory licensing can be resorted to in cases of national emergencies. The license may also be compulsorily transferred to a third party in case of an extremely emergent situation or where there are circumstances implying any anti-competitive movements by the manufacturers. The compulsory licensing is resorted to by the governments to make the drugs easily available to the poor and needy people at affordable costs. It also ensures that the patent holder is provided adequate compensation for use of the patent. 6. Public Health in South Africa and the Impact of TRIPS Agreement The need for cheaper drugs in South Africa can not be undermined. The impact of AIDS in the country poses the situation of an extreme emergency forcing the implementation TRIPS. The economy of South Africa is likely to get affected by a reduction of 1 percent every year because of the work force getting disintegrated. It is estimated that the life expectancy would be lowered to 50 years in 2010 from 70 years currently. These threats to the economy and population growth would as well be a threat to ‘peace and order’ situations in the country of South Africa[13]. In this context all the problems enumerated above for the developing nations have been faced by South Africa also. In addition when the government wanted to implement the Medicines and Related Substances Control Bill, the US Government vehemently objected to the passing of the law which allowed for parallel importing and compulsory licensing. However amidst lot of pressure on the government and the Parliament the South African government enacted the law in the year 1997.The pharmaceutical lobby backed by the transnational companies in the South Africa not only filed a suit against the promulgation of the law but also indulged in negotiations and threats   to the government to change its stand. The pressure was intense after the year 1997 when the South African government tried to implement a number of policy measures to lower the prices of drugs used in public health. â€Å"The SA policies have focused on such issues as mandatory generic drug substitution, restrictions on inappropriate marketing efforts, registration of generic versions of the cancer drug Paclitaxel (sold as Taxol by Bristol-Myers Squibb), parallel-imports, and compulsory licensing†[14]. It may be noted that despite Article 31 of the TRIPS Agreement that provides for the parallel importing and compulsory licensing the transnational pharmaceutical companies have vehemently opposed the attempts by developing countries like South Africa taking measures for implementing parallel importing and compulsory licensing as these practices would allow these countries to have their requirements of the medicines at cheaper prices which in turn would affect the profits of these transnational companies[15]. It was after the intervention of the AIDS activists and health activists that US came to an understanding in the issue. The government of South Africa insisted that it retains all the original provisions defending its position be retained. The government also wanted to make the fullest use of compulsory licensing and parallel importing which were considered as detrimental to the interests of the American Transnational Companies[16]. How American Corporations Control the Business World A- Business lobbies: Large and small businesses in the United States have been organised into various associations, for example Business Round Tables are national Associations which include membership of the Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) of all the most important trans-national companies and the National Chamber of Commerce includes all sizes of firms.[17] Round Tables have been in existence since 1972, the first was formed by forty-two of the (then) biggest and most important U.S. companies including banks, retailers, Insurance, transport and most of the utilities’ companies. They were designed to enable business to proceed without the destructive competitive basis of the business world. They were described as: â€Å"An association of chief executive officers who examine public issues that affect the economy and develop positions which seek to reflect sound economic and social principles. †¦ the Roundtable was founded in the belief that business executives should take an increased role in the continuing debates about public policy.†[18] The raison d’etre for these firms was the idea that ‘what ever is good for business is good for the American people’. They argued that, employees, purchasers, suppliers etc all have an interest in a business. These associations, they say, represent a cross section of the American public.[19] The idea that ‘what is good for business is good for America’ is patently nonsense since most people are in fact excluded from any rights in this elite world.  Ã‚   Employees have little or no say in the running of their firms and consumers must pay the prices asked, they do have the right ‘not to buy’ which is a somewhat negative view of the process of inclusiveness. David C Korten says that most of the memberships of the Round Tables are confined to white males over the age of 50 whose salaries are enormous. They do not, as claimed, consider that what is good for business is good for America but rather endeavour to maximise their own profits and those of their shareholders by seeking to globalise in areas where they can have an almost free hand to carry out their business practices almost unhindered by the laws of any country they move into. [20] Free Trade has long been an ideal of the American Corporate world which is why the Round Tables campaigned vigorously for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA and created USA-NAFTA to front their interests, the American public, nervous at so much control in so few hands, have been given country-wide blanket assurances through the media.   In spite of the fact that NAFTA was supposed to be a really broad church of interests it is really part of the elite Round Table Associations and has many representatives on advisory committees. The country might have been even more nervous if they had realised that at the time of the creation of these Round Tables the major companies were in fact laying aside their competitive differences to â€Å"reach a consensus on issues of social and economic policy for America†.[21] B- Influence of U.S. Democracy Janet Dine claims â€Å"no single idea is more deeply embedded in modern culture than the belief that economic growth is the key to meeting most important human needs, including alleviating poverty and protecting the environment† [22] which accounts for the greatest growth area in Washington being public relations firms. These firms work hard to protect the images of their corporate clients against a rising tide of discontent which is now manifesting itself throughout the world. It could be thought that they are fighting a losing battle but â€Å"the top fifty public relations firms billed over $1.7 billion dollars in 1991†[23] which gives rise to the question, why are these PR firms so necessary? There is probably no single answer to this question but very little news is given directly to the public without some corporate employee looking at the effect it will have, news and advertising, according to Korten, are almost synonymous.[24] The political system of America has greatly changed in the post war period of more general affluence. The Democratic party has lost its basic identity   the party of the people – as opposed to the Republicans who have always represented business and the wealthier side of the electorate – this being so the Democrats are far more dependant on the need to raise funds for their electioneering and have turned to the corporations who inevitably want quid pro quo for their donations. The mass media are heavily behind the elitist values of corporate America and the amount they are able to pay to PR firms to put across an extremely one-sided policy and both the leading parties needing the financial backing of corporate America, this, says David C Korten, â€Å"This is the sorry state of American democracy†.[25]   He says that voters tend to be seen as a passive homogeneous mass of potential customers who can be told not only what to buy but also what to think and feel.   What is worse, this idea of corporations is spreading, many trans-national companies rely heavily on the corporate idealism of what is good for them is good for the people they sell to.   Mexico and Japan both use those same American firms to tell their populations what they should think and feel and ultimately what they should buy. C- American Democracy   for Sale: â€Å"The Mexican government spent upwards of $25 million and hired many of the leading Washington lobbyists to support its campaign for NAFTA. †¦ Japanese corporations were spending an estimated $100 million a year on political lobbying in the United States and another $300 million building a nationwide grassroots political network to influence public opinion†. [26] Canada, Britain and the Netherlands’ governments employ public relations’ firms in America to help them lobby and draft laws that will be favourable to the business elites in their own countries. These companies try to sell the idea of ‘corporate libertarianism’ [27]which is supposed to allay the fears of those who have an idea that all is not well in the corporate world of business, it is possible to claim that these corporations are in fact in the act of ‘taking over the world’ and with the resources piling up behind them it could well happen in the not too distant future. The United States and Higher Levels of Protection. To add to this theme of a world take-over by corporate America, the signatories to TRIPS have begun to rethink intellectual property protection.[28] This is bad news for those under-developed countries which rely on drugs from the western world to protect their citizens from ravaging epidemics. Rosalyn S Park says: â€Å"Poor, developing nations have been most affected by the patent protection laws and resulting high drug prices, yet these nations also harbor the highest number of HIV-positive people. Consequently, the vast majority of people in need of HIV/AIDS medicines simply cannot afford them†. [29] In 2006 new protection laws will come into force which all members must adhere to. This will have a devastating effect on the millions of people in countries too poor to have their own drugs’ businesses, they will become more reliant upon those better protected, developed countries making vast profits from the countries least able to pay. Neither the USA nor the European Union appear greatly interested in aiding those countries with the greatest needs and the least ability to pay.   Admittedly concessions have been made as regards agricultural and textile concessions but this has been at the cost of allowing higher property rights which is a swings-and-round-a-bouts situation.   It would be much more useful to South Africa specifically and to the developing world in general, if the costs of patented drugs could be either brought down or, as a common sense gesture of good will, eliminated completely until such time as the AIDS epidemic was at least brought down to manageable proportions. In spite of â€Å"several different types of drugs on the market which help combat AIDS and AIDS related illnesses†[30] not enough are getting through to the developing countries as the multinationals are still insisting on not just the status quo as regards intellectual property rights but even higher levels.[31] They appear to be driven only by the profit motive and the perceived necessity for free trade paying little attention to the suffering caused in the developing world. Nor are they taking a long term view, highly contagious diseases are rife in the developing world, therefore, with the modern freedom of travel, no country can ever be safe from the same epidemics.   Even with modern drugs to combat them, new strains will develop, new drugs will have to be found and costs will escalate. Drugs now exist which allow people with AIDS to live a reasonably normal life including returning to work, it would in fact be in the interests of the drugs’ companies to allow South Africa to use them, dead people have no use for drugs nor anything else that the multi-nationals may wish to sell them. Conclusion The TRIPS Agreement was a milestone in patent protection of intellectual property rights and was considered to be a financial safeguard for research investment, however, it also had the effect of pricing some pharmaceuticals out of the reach of many nations most in need of the most recently patented medicines.   Before the TRIPS agreement, governments had been able to make compulsory licence orders to produce drugs at lower prices in their own countries, after the agreement, although still possible, it is much more difficult and thus more difficult to protect their citizens from the epidemics which are wreaking havoc in their countries. It is important to protect intellectual property rights but it is far more important to protect people’s lives but the balance currentlppears to be largely towards the greater protection of pharmaceutical industries. TRIPS allows compulsory licensing and parallel pricing but underdeveloped countries such as South Africa are being prevented from using them because of the threat of trade sanctions and trade is vital to their economies. It is necessary to protect peoples’ work and investment and research must be encouraged especially into life-threatening diseases. Corporations who invest time and money into producing drugs to cope with these scourges should reap the rewards of their labour.   However, many drugs’ companies are seeing such enormous returns on their investments that concessions should be made to underdeveloped countries which so desperately need the medications produced by these huge giants of industry. In spite of concessions in the TRIPS agreement, corporations do appear to be protected at the expense of people’s lives. Public health should be and is a priority in the west where governments can afford to buy the health of their citizens. Unfortunately, this is not the case in the poorer, less developed countries where governments are struggling to find ways to access drugs and yet to maintain a healthy trading relationship with the countries which hold the patents to these drugs. Good health is the basic right of every citizen of every country wherever possible. More goodwill is necessary on the part of the western world and America in particular to allow compulsory licensing and parallel pricing to be used without the threat of trade sanctions.  Ã‚   Epidemics do not respect borders, they can be carried by people to all corners the world, what was a third world problem yesterday is our problem today, world health is an issue that no country can ignore therefore although corporations must be allowed fair returns on their investments it must not be at the expense of world health. It is quite apparent that TRIPS Agreement has not taken into account the public health needs of the developing nations while formulating the clauses relating to the protection of IPR in respect of pharmaceutical needs. The Agreement has not specified any particular obligations towards those governments granting the IPR for pharmaceutical products. The Agreement has also not considered the need for public health in the developing countries and grossly ignored the interests of the patients of these countries. There are a number of factors that the developing countries have to take into account including the implication of the TRIPS Agreement and the patent protection under the Agreement in the provision of medical facilities and adequate public health to the people of the respective developing countries. â€Å"At the end of the day it must be recognized that the poorer residents of the world’s least affluent nations cannot pay even the marginal cost of drugs that might save their lives or permit them to become productive workers†[32]. Bibliography    Conceicao Soares (2007)‘The HIV/AIDS crisis and corporate moral responsibility in the light of the Levinasian notions of proximity and the Third’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 16 No 3 p 280 David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.144 Duane Nash, â€Å"†¦VI, Foreign & International Law South Africa’s Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act of 1997† 15 Berkeley Tech. L J. 485(lexis) Fact Sheet ‘Developing Countries’ Transition Periods’ p1 F.M. Scherer and Jayashree Watal ‘Post-Trips Options for Access to Patented Medicines in Developing Nations’ Journal of International Economic Law (2002) p 939 Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.157 J H Reichman, The TRIPS Agreement Comes of Age: Conflict or Cooperation with the Developing Countries? P.6 John A. Harrelson, â€Å" IV. Note: Trips, Pharmaceutical Patents, and the HIV/AIDS Crisis: Finding the Proper Balance Between Intellectual Property Rights and Compassion† 7 Wid. L. Symp. J . 175(lexis) Kara M. Bombach ‘The South African Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Bill and TRIPS’ p1 Lisa Foreman (2007)‘Trade Rules, Intellectual Property and the Right to Health’ Comparative Program in Health and Society Munk Centre for International Studies University of Toronto Ethics & International Affairs Vol. 21 No3 p 342 Louise Sylvan ‘TRIPS: Protecting Intellectual Property or Putting Profits Before People’ Online Opinion    p1 Medecins sans Frontieres (1999) Access to HIV/AIDS medicines in Thailand, Medecins sans Frontieres Report to the National AIDS Committee of Thailand, August 1999, MSF website, www.accessmed-msf.org/msf/accessmed/accessmed.nsf/html/4DTS2? Open Document.p1 N.B. Zaveri (1999) ‘Success often comes to those who dare and act’, paper presented at Brainstorming Workshop on WTO Agreements and People’s Concerns, New Delhi, Oct/Nov 1999 p1 Patric Bond ‘US Policy toward South Africa and Access to Pharmaceutical Drugs’ Alternative Information and Development Centre p1 Ross Brennan and Paul Baines (2005) ‘Is there a morally right price for anti-retroviral drugs in the developing world’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 15 No 1 p32 Rosalyn S Park, The International Drug Industry: What the Future Holds for South Africa’s HIV/AIDS Patients, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, p.3 Z. Mirza (1999) ‘WTO/TRIPS, pharmaceuticals and health: impacts and strategies’, The Network’s Drug Bulletin, Sept-Dec 1999, Vol. 8, No. 5/6, Association for Rational Use of Medication in Pakistan p 27       [1] United Nations (2004) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: United Nations [2] Ross Brennan and Paul Baines (2005) ‘Is there a morally right price for anti-retroviral drugs in the developing world’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 15 No 1 p 32 [3] Conceicao Soares (2007)‘The HIV/AIDS crisis and corporate moral responsibility in the light of the Levinasian notions of proximity and the Third’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 16 No 3 p 280 [4] www.wto.org (Frequently asked questions about TRIPS in the WTO). [5] Duane Nash, â€Å"†¦VI, Foreigh & International Law South Africa’s Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act of 1997† 15 Berkeley Tech. L J. 485(lexis) [6] Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.157 [7] John A. Harrelson, â€Å" IV. Note: Trips, Pharmaceutical Patents, and the HIV/AIDS Crisis: Finding the Proper Balance Between Intellectual Property Rights and Compassion† 7 Wid. L. Symp. J . 175(lexis) [8] Ibid [9] Ibid [10] Z. Mirza (1999) ‘WTO/TRIPS, pharmaceuticals and health: impacts and strategies’, The Network’s Drug Bulletin, Sept-Dec 1999, Vol. 8, No. 5/6, Association for Rational Use of Medication in Pakistan p 27 [11] Medecins sans Frontieres (1999) Access to HIV/AIDS medicines in Thailand, Medecins sans Frontieres Report to the National AIDS Committee of Thailand, August 1999, MSF website, www.accessmed-msf.org/msf/accessmed/accessmed.nsf/html/4DTS2? Open Document. p1 [12] Fact Sheet ‘Developing Countries’ Transition Periods’ p1 [13] Kara M. Bombach ‘The South African Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Bill and TRIPS’ http://academic.udayton.edu/health/06world/africa01.htm p1 [14] Patric Bond ‘US Policy toward South Africa and Access to Pharmaceutical Drugs’   Alternative Information and Development Centre  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      p1 [15] Louise Sylvan ‘TRIPS: Protecting Intellectual Property or Putting Profits Before People’ Online Opinion p1 [16] N.B. Zaveri (1999) ‘Success often comes to those who dare and act’, paper presented at Brainstorming Workshop on WTO Agreements and People’s Concerns, New Delhi, Oct/Nov 1999 p1 [17] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.144 [18] Ibid [19] Ibid [20] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.144 [21] Ibid [22] Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.156 [23] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.146 [24] Ibid [25] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.147 [26] Ibid [27] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London,pp.147-148 [28] Rosalyn S Park, The International Drugs Industry: What the Future Holds for South Africa’s HIV/AIDS   Patients, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, 2002.p.1 [29] Ibid [30] Rosalyn S Park, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, 2000, p.2 [31] J H Reichman, The TRIPS Agreement Comes of Age: Conflict or Cooperation with the Developing Countries? P.6 [32] F.M. Scherer and Jayashree Watal ‘Post-Trips Options for Access to Patented Medicines in Developing Nations’ Journal of International Economic Law (2002)   p 939